Jumat, 29 Desember 2017
Definition of
Syllabus
The syllabus is defined as the documents that
consist of topics or portion covered in a particular subject. It is determined
by the examination board and created by the professors. The professors are
responsible for the quality of the course. It is made available to the students
by the teachers, either in hard copy or electronic form to bring their
attention towards the subject and take their study seriously.
A syllabus is considered as a guide to the in charge
as well as to the students. It helps the students to know about the subject in
detail, why it is a part of their course of study, what are the expectations
from students, consequences of failure, etc. It contains general rules,
policies, instructions, topics covered, assignments, projects, test dates, and
so on.
2. Skill Based
Syllabus
skill based syllabus is one of design Syllabus Process. Design mean concerned with
the selection, sequencing and justification of the content of the curriculum.
Traditional approaches to syllabus developed were concerned with selecting
lists of linguistic features such as grammar,
pronunciation, and vocabulary as well as experiential content such as topics
and themes. These sequenced and integrated lists were then presented to the
methodologist, whose task it was to develop learning activities to facilitate
the learning of the prespecified content. In the last twenty years or so a
range of alternative syllabus models have been proposed, including a task-based
approach. In this piece I want to look at some of the elements that a Skill
based syllabus designer needs to take into consideration when he or she
embraces a Skill task based approach to creating syllabuses and pedagogical
materials.
Before going to know about Skill based syllabus, The first
lets to know about skill. Generally, skill mean an ability to do an activity or
job well. it involves someone who has had special training and practicing
to do it. So, what is the meaning skill in language teaching? The term
“skill” in language teaching is
used as a specific way of using language that combines structural and
functional ability.
In skill-based syllabus, the content of the language
teaching involves a collection of particular skills that may play a role in
using language. Relevance on student-felt needs or wants is the
advantage of the skill based syllabus because learners who know what they need
to do with the language generally show great acceptance of instruction that is
clearly directed toward their goals. on the other hand, there are many
people argue that skill based syllabus will limit people general language
proficiency and some bad impact related to social value that Skill based
instruction that is too limited in scope can program students for particular
kinds of or isolated them from achievements and ambition that the competencies
do not prepare them. The primary purpose of skill-based instruction is to
teach the specific language skill that may be useful or necessary in using
language. Skill-based syllabus merge
linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and discourse)
together into generalized types of behavior such as listening to spoken
language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, delivering
effective lectures and so forth.
3. Items in syllabus
Syllabus design concern the selection of items to be
learnt and the grading of those items into an appropriate sequence. It is
different from curriculum design , in the latter the designer not just with
lists of what will be taught and in what order, but also with the planning ,
implementation, evaluation, management and
evaluation of education programmes. There are a number of different
types of language syllabus, all of which can be taken as a starting point in
the planning of a new course book. Every
syllabus needs to be developed on the
basis of certain criteria, such as learnability, frequency, coverage, abd
usefulness. Learnability means that we teach easier things first and then
increase the level of difficulty as students
language level rises, frequency
would make sense at the begining levels,
to include items which are more frequent in the language, than ones that are
only used occasionally by native speaker . by coverage we mean the scope for
use. Some words and structure have greater coverage than others, teachers may
decide on the basis of coverage wheter to introduce a language structure before
another one or not. Usefulness gives the reason why certain words, such as
‘book’ or ‘pen’ are highly recommended in classrooms though they might not be
that frequent in real language use. They are useful words in a classrooms situation .
sources :http://progressive-edu.com/?p=792
sources :http://progressive-edu.com/?p=792
Rabu, 27 Desember 2017
A. how to do a research
references : https://www.topuniversities.com/blog/how-do-research-project-6-steps
A
year ago I had this crazy idea of experimenting with the final semester of my
two-year course. Being an international student in Australia, doing two
postgraduate degrees and working at the same time was apparently not enough for
me. So instead of choosing to do a professional project and finishing my
degree, I decided to do a research project.
If
you must know, I literally had no idea of how to do a research project or how
to write a thesis. So I went to my professor and told him about my plans to
complete a research project for my final semester. “If students imagine
completing a research project in three months, I ask them to come and see me.
And they later un-imagine it,” came my professor’s reply.
I
was then given special permission to take two semesters to finish this research
project – and hopefully in a few weeks’ time I will submit my first completed
piece of research. In the past few months I have learned a lot of lessons that
I want to share, in case you also decide to follow this route without any prior
knowledge of how to do a research project!
1.
Find the right supervisor
My
professor asked a faculty member to become my supervisor. I floated an idea
about what area I was interested in working on, and she agreed to keep an eye
on me. In terms of a supervisor I couldn’t have asked for anything better. She
is patient with me, she knows my shortcomings and she always motivates me even
if I am unable to see myself progressing. Having such a supervisor makes this
journey very comfortable and easy.
2.
Don’t be shy, ask!
I
told you earlier that I did not have any clue about how to do a research
project. That was my reality and I didn’t try to hide it. I communicated my
weakness openly to my supervisor and warned her in advance that I would be
asking stupid questions throughout the duration of my project just so I could
get an idea of what I was doing. “No question is stupid,” she assured me. The
credit indeed goes to her, but it is ultimately your responsibility
to communicate with your supervisor and ask as many questions as you need to.
3.
Select the right topic
Your
topic will determine your project. It should be interesting and it should be
something that you really want to investigate. So never rely on others for
recommendations about what should be your topic of research. Try to read and
think a lot and you will find an area of interest. Explore your inner self,
even if it takes time. In a few weeks you will start gathering your thoughts
and realize what you actually are interested in researching.
4.
Keep your plan realistic
Your
topic could be the best in the field, but do you have enough resources to
finish the project? Suppose your research project involves travelling halfway
around the world to conduct a field investigation. The question you must be
asking yourself is: can I afford that much time and money? If not, then no
matter how brilliant your idea is, you need to think of something else. Save
this one for when you receive a healthy research grant.
5.
Prepare a project timeline
Having
a project timeline is everything. It keeps you on track all the time. You
should have a timeline set out in the first week, stating targets that you must
achieve throughout the duration of your research project. Things could go wrong
here and there, and you can always adjust dates, but it is very important to
have a schedule, ideally broken down further into weekly targets. Ask your
supervisor about what kind of targets you should set and try to achieve these
on a weekly basis. Doing this should help you avoid becoming overwhelmed.
6.
Write, write and write
If
you’re unsure how to write a thesis, the best advice I can give is not to leave
the writing stage until last. Start writing from day one. This is something I
learned the hard way. My supervisor always suggests writing, but I don’t feel
comfortable doing that unless I have all the information in hand. However, I’ve
learned how important it is to write down whatever you do, and make notes of
whatever you read. Documenting the whole process as you go will help you
finalize the project in a very effective way. So don’t worry about writing
things that are “wrong” or that don’t make sense. Remember, it only has to make
sense once the whole project is finished. So even if it seems raw, keep on
writing and get regular feedback from your supervisor.
These
are some general rules that apply to every research project. You will
definitely have to alter a few things here and there depending on your area of
interest and your topic. I wish you good luck for this. And if you need to talk
to me, don’t hesitate to leave a comment below. Finally, remember that
persistence is the key. You may feel like giving up when things go off track,
but stick with it and you’ll not only emerge with a completed project, you’ll
also gain lots of invaluable skills along the way.
references : https://www.topuniversities.com/blog/how-do-research-project-6-steps
What is error analaysis ?
Error analysis is a branch of applied linguistics. It is
concerned with the compilation, study and analysis of errors made by second language learners and
aims at investigating aspects of second language acquisition.
Closely related to error analysis is
the concept of interlanguage.
Some researchers distinguish error
analysis from transfer analysis, which
compares the learner’s data with the respective first language, whereas error
analysis compares the learner’s data with the target language norm and identifies and explains
errors accordingly (cf. James 1998).
Error analysis was first used as a way of studying second language acquisition in the
1960s. Corder’s seminal paper "The Significance of Learner’s Errors"
(1967) had shifted researchers’ attention from the teaching perspective to the
learning perspective and therefore also away from contrastive analysis, behaviorism and structuralism towards cognitive psychology. This
development went hand in hand with the turn towards a communicative approach in
language teaching.
Drawing on knowledge about first language acquisition,
Corder posited that second language learners discover the target language by
hypothesizing about it and testing their hypotheses more or less like children
do. This process does not happen randomly, but follows the learner’s built-in syllabus, so that
errors will necessarily be made.
Corder used the term transitional competence for
what has since become a widely accepted and often used concept: that of interlanguage (cf.
Selinker 1972), the learner’s individual, dynamic approximation of the target language. According
to this view, errors indicate that a learner actively learns the target
language, as they occur whenever a hypothesis tested by the learner does not
work. In error analysis, the language learning process is regarded
as being influenced by the learner’s first language, his or
her interlanguage and the target language. Thus, all
of these three language systems have an influence on which errors a learner
makes. But the gap between the interlanguage and
the target language is
considered the most important factor of the three. Even more importantly,
however, the learner makes errors because of the learning strategies he
or she employs to ‘discover’ the target language.
For all these reasons, inductive error
analyses were carried out in order to arrive at generalizations about errors,
interlanguage and, ultimately, second language acquisition.
Error analysis reached its zenith in the 1970s, but soon turned out to be deficient
as a research tool. By the late 1970s, it was merely contributing to broader
second language acquisition theory and research, as it still does today.
2. grammar translation method
The Grammar Translation Method is an old
method which was originally used to teach dead languages which explains
why it focuses mainly on the written form at the expense of the oral form. It
was designed according to the faculty psychology approach which was
very popular during the 18th and 19th century. It contended that ” mental
discipline was essential for strengthening the powers of the mind”. The way to
do this was through learning classical literature of the Greeks and Romans.
Method :
a.Use of mother tongue.
b.Vocabulary items are taught in the form of word lists.
c.Elaborate explanations of grammar.
d.Focus on the morphology and syntax.
e. Reading of difficult texts early in the course.
f. Practice focuses on exercises translating sentences or texts from
mother tongue to the target language and vice versa.
It is surprising to see that the Grammar Translation Method was still in
use in some classrooms during the late decades of the 20th century. May be,
it’s because it bears some advantages.
Advantages :
a.Translation is the easiest and shortest way of explaining meaning of
words and phrases.
b.Learners have no difficulties to understand the lesson as it is carried
out in the mother tongue.
c.It is a labor-saving method as the teacher carries out everything in the
mother tongue.
Criticism
d.What the method is good at is “teaching about the language” , not
“teaching the language”.
e.Speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the
curriculum.
f.Students lacked an active role in the classroom.
g.Very little attention is paid to communication.
h.Very little attention is paid to content.
i.Translation is sometimes misleading.
Because of all these disadvantages,
instructors tried to find better ways to remedy the pitfalls of the
grammar translation method. The Direct Method was the
answer.
Reference:
Brown, H. Douglas, 2006. Principles
of Language Learning and Teaching, Fifth Edition, Pearson ESL.
Richards, Jack C. and Theodore S. Rodgers
(1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching: A description and
analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
3.total physical response
Where is it from ?
TPR stands for Total Physical Response and
was created by Dr. James J Asher. It is based upon the way that children learn
their mother tongue. Parents have 'language-body conversations' with their
children, the parent instructs and the child physically responds to this. The
parent says, "Look at mummy" or "Give me the ball" and the
child does so. These conversations continue for many months before the child
actually starts to speak itself. Even though it can't speak during this time,
the child is taking in all of the language; the sounds and the patterns.
Eventually when it has decoded enough, the child reproduces the language quite
spontaneously. TPR attempts to mirror this effect in the language classroom.
How can I use it in class ?
How can I use it in class ?
In the classroom the teacher plays the role of parent. She starts by saying a word ('jump') or a phrase ('look at the board') and demonstrating an action. The teacher then says the command and the students all do the action. After repeating a few times it is possible to extend this by asking the students to repeat the word as they do the action. When they feel confident with the word or phrase you can then ask the students to direct each other or the whole class.
It is more effective if the students are
standing in a circle around the teacher and you can even encourage them to walk
around as they do the action.
When should I use it ?
TPR can be used to teach and practise many things.
Vocabulary connected with actions (smile,
chop, headache, wriggle)
Tenses past/present/future and continuous
aspects (Every morning I clean my teeth, I make my bed, I eat breakfast)
Classroom language (Open your books)
Imperatives/Instructions (Stand up, close
your eyes)
Storytelling
It can be adapted for all kinds of
teaching situations, you just need to use your imagination!
Why should I use it in the classroom ?
Why should I use it in the classroom ?
- It is a lot of fun, students enjoy it and it can
be a real stirrer in the class. It lifts the pace and the mood.
- It is very memorable. It really helps students to
remember phrases or words.
- It is good for kinaesthetic learners who need to
be active in the class.
- It can be used in large or small classes. It
doesn't really matter how many students you have as long as you are
prepared to take the lead, the students will follow.
- It works well with mixed-ability classes. The
physical actions get across the meaning effectively so that all the
students are able to understand and use the target language.
- It doesn't require a lot of preparation or
materials. As long as you are clear what you want to practise (a rehearsal
beforehand can help), it won't take a lot of time to get ready.
- It is very effective with teenagers and young
learners.
- It involves both left- and right-brained
learning.
A few useful variations When I use TPR, first I get the students to do the actions and then I do them and drill the students (chorally and individually) to give them an opportunity to practise making the sounds. They are then ready to give commands to each other.
A game I like to play is to organize the
students into a circle around me, I say the word and the last person to do the
action is out. This person then stands behind me and watches for the student
who does the action last. Eventually there is only one student, she is the
winner.
You can extend this by playing Simon Says. This time when you give a command, students should only do it if you say "Simon says..." at the start. I might say, "Simon says, 'slice some bread'" or "Simon says, 'chop an onion'" and the students must do the action. However if I say, "Whisk an egg" the students shouldn't do this. If anyone does the action that Simon doesn't say then they are out and have to watch for the mistakes of the other students.
Are there any disadvantages with using TPR ?
You can extend this by playing Simon Says. This time when you give a command, students should only do it if you say "Simon says..." at the start. I might say, "Simon says, 'slice some bread'" or "Simon says, 'chop an onion'" and the students must do the action. However if I say, "Whisk an egg" the students shouldn't do this. If anyone does the action that Simon doesn't say then they are out and have to watch for the mistakes of the other students.
Are there any disadvantages with using TPR ?
Students who are not
used to such things might find it embarrassing. This can be the case initially
but I have found that if the teacher is prepared to perform the actions, the
students feel happier about copying. Also the students are in groups and don't
have to perform for the whole class. This pleasure is reserved for the teacher.
It is only really suitable for beginner
levels. Whilst it is clear that it is far more useful at lower levels because
the target language lends itself to such activities I have also used it
successfully with Intermediate and Advanced levels. You need to adapt the
language accordingly.
For example, it helped me to teach 'ways of walking' (stumble, stagger, tiptoe) to an advanced class and cooking verbs to intermediate students (whisk, stir, grate).
For example, it helped me to teach 'ways of walking' (stumble, stagger, tiptoe) to an advanced class and cooking verbs to intermediate students (whisk, stir, grate).
You can't teach everything with it and if
used a lot it would become repetitive. I completely agree with this but it can
be a successful and fun way of changing the dynamics and pace of a lesson used
in conjunction with other methods and techniques.
Richard Frost, British Council, Turkey
EXERCISE :
1. what is error analysis ? (15)
2. what is advantages and disadvantages of grammar translation method ?(25)
3. what is total physical response and give an example ?(25)
4. what is characteristic in grammar translation method ? (15)
5. what is definition of grammar translation method ? (20)
- Cherrington, Ruth. 2004. Error Analysis. In: Byram, Michael (ed.) Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London/New York: Routledge. 198-200.
- Corder, S.P. 1967. The Significance of Learner’s Errors. In: IRAL 5/1967. 161-170.
- Ellis, Rod. 2008. The Study of Second Language Acquisition (2nd edition). Oxford: OUP. 47; 60-65.
- James, Carl. 1998. Errors in Language Learning and Use – Exploring Error Analysis. Essex: Pearson.
- Johnson, Keith & Johnson, Helen (ed.) 1998. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics – A Handbook for Language Teaching. Oxford/Malden: Blackwell. 110-114
- Brown, H. Douglas, 2006. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Fifth Edition, Pearson ESL.
- Richards, Jack C. and Theodore S. Rodgers (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
1. language acquisition and language learning
ccording to
linguists, there is an important distinction between language acquisition and
language learning. As you may well have noticed, children acquire their mother
tongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that
surrounds them. Their need to communicate paves the way for language
acquisition to take place. As experts suggest, there is an innate capacity in
every human being to acquire language.
By the time a child
is five years old, s/he can express ideas clearly and almost perfectly from the
point of view of language and grammar. Although parents never sit with children
to explain to them the workings of the language, their utterances show a superb
command of intricate rules and patterns that would drive an adult crazy if s/he
tried to memorize them and use them accurately. This suggests that it is
through exposure to the language and meaningful communication that a first
language is acquired, without the need of systematic studies of any kind. When
it comes to second language learning in children, you will notice that this
happens almost identically to their first language acquisition. And even
teachers focus more on the communicative aspect of the language rather than on
just rules and patterns for the children to repeat and memorize. In order to
acquire language, the learner needs a source of natural communication.
The emphasis is on the
text of the communication and not on the form. Young students who are in the
process of acquiring a second language get plenty of “on the job” practice.
They readily acquire the language to communicate with classmates.
In short, we see this
tendency in which second language teachers are quite aware of the importance of
communication in young learners and their inability to memorize rules
consciously (although they will definitely acquire them through a hands-on
approach just as they did with their mother tongue).
Unfortunately, when
it comes to adult students, a quick look at the current methodologies and
language courses available clearly shows that communication is set aside,
neglected or even disregarded. In almost all cases, courses revolve around grammar,
patterns, repetitions, drillings and rote memorization without even a human
interlocutor to interact with.
The very same courses
that promise you language independence and the ability to communicate upon
completion of the courses do NOT offer you a single chance to engage in
meaningful conversations. How many times have you bought or read about “the
ultimate language course on CD” in which the learner simply has to sit in front
of a computer to listen to and repeat words and phrases time and again. That is
not communication. That is the way you train a parrot! The animal will
definitely learn and repeat a few phrases and amuse you and your friends, but
it will never ever be able to communicate effectively.
How could you be
expected to communicate if you are never given the chance to speak with a real
person? Language without real communication is as useless as Saint Valentine’s
day without lovers or Children’s day without kids.
In some other
scenarios, in which there is a teacher, the work done in class is mostly
grammatically oriented: tenses, rules, multiple choice exercises and so on and
so forth. Is this similar to the way in which a child “acquires a language?”
Definitely not. No wonder why so many people fail in acquiring a second
language naturally. Simply because whatever they are doing is highly unnatural
and devoid of meaning to them. This is the field of language learning.
Language learning as
seen today is not communicative. It is the result of direct instruction in the
rules of language. And it certainly is not an age-appropriate activity for your
young learners – as it is not for adults either. In language learning, students
have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that knowledge.
They can fill in the
blanks on a grammar page. Research has shown, however, that knowing grammar
rules does not necessarily result in good speaking or writing. A student who
has memorized the rules of the language may be able to succeed on a
standardized test of English language but may not be able to speak or write
correctly.
As teachers, it is
our duty to make sure that our students “acquire” rather than “learn” the
language.
Written by Julio Foppoli
2. language
function in social communication
The Social Function of Language
The social function of language refers
to the way we relate language to our relationships with other people. Meaning,
it's how we use language and how we communicate in a social setting.
Let's
take a look at a concrete example of this, using word meaning and word forms.
We're going to pretend that you're in college and just started a new internship
at a hospital and have gotten sick on day three. You're going to call your boss
and mentor, a physician named Dr. Eric Smith, and ask him to take the day off.
How are you going to do this? There are an infinite number of ways we can
phrase this, but let's stick to two examples that we'll analyze.
Hey
Eric. I'm sorry, boss. I feel sick to my stomach. I'm gonna need to take the
day off.
Hi
Dr. Smith. I'm sorry, boss, but I feel very sick today. I'm going to need to
take the day off.
Notice
how both examples convey the same idea. The meaning of the word boss is the
same. The meaning of needing to take the day off is the same. The direct
meaning of what you're trying to say is the same.
However,
which of the examples uses word forms that are a socially acceptable way to
communicate with your supervisor, who is also a physician? Clearly, it's the
second example.
Here,
we're using terms like 'Dr. Smith', instead of 'Eric'. And 'I'm going to',
instead of 'I'm gonna'. The first example is too informal for a newly formed
boss-employee relationship between a student and his or her supervisor/mentor,
so the second example is more apropos unless Dr. Smith says it's OK to be on a
first-name basis.
These
are examples of indirect social cues we use in language to express how we view
ourselves in comparison to someone else in society. The way we form phrases or
words, despite their variations having the same meanings, helps us understand
things like social standing when two people interact with one another.
The point is, it's
not just enough to use language to communicate. You must also use it in a way
that fits the type of social relationship you have with your audience.
Selasa, 26 Desember 2017
1. language and communciation
Language allows people to communicate with great precision. The Language
and Communication group studies how people use language in specific discourse
contexts, to share information with others, and to persuade or otherwise affect
them.
Our overall goal is to understand
how language is actually used,
when it is used effectively, and why.
For instance, how do particular text characteristics interact with a
reader's cognitive architecture such that information is conveyed in a
coherent, comprehensible way? How does language interact with people's
emotional and motivational architecture so that it effectively moves or
persuades them?
We explore whether answers to the above depend on the medium and genre
(e.g. a book, survey, advertisement, information leaflet, social media message,
or face-to-face conversation), and on additional nonverbal signs (e.g.
illustrations). Since language use is always socially embedded and guided by
personal, organisational, institutional and cultural goals, we also examine how
the social context affects language use and vice versa, as well as how people
from different cultures communicate with each other.
We address these questions using linguistic analysis, corpus and field
research, cognitive (neuro) science experiments, and computational modelling,
mostly focussing on adults, but also exploring language use involving children
and adolescents. Through collaboration with societal partners, we strongly
invest in embedding our research in concrete real-world settings, and in using
our results to improve communication in those settings. Examples involve
product advertising, health communication (e.g., patient information leaflets),
financial, legal and corporate communication (e.g., pension advice, police
interrogations, corporate apologies), helpdesks, informational websites for
children, textbooks, and voting advice applications
1. definition of language
Language is a set of
symbols being used mainly for communication. The symbols may be spoken or
written. Language is an aspect of human behavior. In written form it is a long
term record of knowledge from one generation to the next while in spoken form
it is a means of communication. Language is the key aspect of human
intelligence.
·
It is a means of
communication
·
It is arbitrary
·
It is a system
of systems
·
It is primarily
vocal
·
It differs from
animal communication in several
·
It is a from of
social behavior
·
It is a symbol
system
·
Productivity
2.function of language
Actually, Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). Mentioned that language has five
functions. They are:
1. Informational
2. Expressive
3. Directive
4. Aesthetic
5. Phatic
I am going to discuss every function.
"Informational function which every one tends to assume is most
important" Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). In fact, this function concentrates on
the message. It is used to give new information. It depends on truth and value.
Let us look at this example, the car is big, the bus is crowded.
" language can have an expressive function: that is, it can be used to
express its originator's feelings and attitudes - swear words and exclamations
are the most obvious instance of this". Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). The
speaker or writer of this function tries to express his feelings. He or she
reflexes his or her impression. This function could give a clear image for the
personality of the speaker or writer. The best example of this kind is Poetry
and literature . In fact, this function evoke certain feelings and express
feelings. Examples of this kind are, I am very happy or I spent a wonderful
vacation. We can see from the previous examples that they reflex the feelings
of the speaker or the writer.
"The third function of language is the directive function whereby we
aim to influence the behavior or attitudes of others. The most straightforward
instances of the directive function are commands and requests. This function of
social control places emphasis on the receiver's end, rather than the
originator's end of the message: but it resembles the expressive function in
giving less importance, on the whole, to conceptual meaning than to other types
of meaning, particularly affective and connotative meaning" Geoffery
Leech( 1974 ).
Examples of this kind are, I want a cup of tea or close the door. It is
clear hear that, we use the language in a direct way. We ask someone to do
something. Some times we can use a sentence to express two functions. For
example, I am thirsty. The previous example could be used to show the condition
of the speaker or writer or to express the feeling. In a way that a person asks
someone to give him water.
The fourth function is the aesthetic
function, which is " the use of language for the sake of the linguistic
artifact itself, and for no purpose. This aesthetic function can have at least
as much to do with conceptual as with affective meaning" Geoffery Leech(
1974 ). " The function associated with the message-the vehicle-is the
poetic or aesthetic function: the sign taken as an end in itself. All art
understood as art is taken to embody this function, and any object valued for
its beauty rather than for its ideological value or usefulness-whether a
gorgeous car, an elegant teapot, or some acreage of untouched real estate-takes
on this function. Although Jakobson, perhaps more precisely than anyone who
preceded him, showed how the aesthetic function could hinge on structure, he
argues that cultural norms ultimately determine the dominance of this function.
As a striking demonstration, he notes that the aesthetic status that one
generation accorded only to the poems of Karel Mácha, a subsequent generation
accords only to his diaries. Jakobson, R. (1933)".
According to Leech, the fifth function is the phatic function. " the
function of keeping communication lines open, and keeping social relationships
in good repair ( in Britain culture, talking about the weather is a well-known
example of this)". Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). We can say about this function
that it is used for normal talks. An example of this, when two people meet each
other accidently in a place. They start talking about something unimportant for
the sake of communication like, how are you? How is your children? And so on.
We can say that it is a kind of daily talking. It is not meaning but is good.
Actually has another classification from what we have discussed. H. Douglas
Brown has classified function of language into seven types. "This
classification is not much different from that of Leech. The functional
approach to describing language is one that has its roots in the traditions of
British linguists J,R Firth, who reviewed language as interactive and
interpersonal, away of behaving and making others behave" Berns, ( 1984).
exercise :
1. what are characteristics of language ? (15)
2. what is function of language and explain ! (25)
3. what is abritrary means in charactheristics of language ? ( 20 )
4. what are seven types classified of language based on H. Douglas Brown ? (20)
5. what is affective and connotative meaning based on Geoffery Leech( 1974 ) ? (20)
1. what are characteristics of language ? (15)
2. what is function of language and explain ! (25)
3. what is abritrary means in charactheristics of language ? ( 20 )
4. what are seven types classified of language based on H. Douglas Brown ? (20)
5. what is affective and connotative meaning based on Geoffery Leech( 1974 ) ? (20)
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